Dr Dildar Ahmed, PhD
Introduction
Notwithstanding the tremendous advancement that the modern cosmology, astronomy and astrophysics have made in unraveling the mysteries of the physical universe, our traditional religious and layperson conception of the universe is still impregnated with the primitive world-view first proposed by Aristotle and later developed by Ptolemy. So much so that even some of our religious scholars, being unaware of modern cosmological discoveries often tend to interpret the Qur’anic verses related to the universe according to the out-dated Ptolemaic view of the universe. For many of them, for example, the meteors are the stars, which the angels throw on the evil spirits! While explaining the meaning of 15:16-18, 37:10, 67:5 and 72:8-9, many traditionalistic exegetes extended an interpretation in which one can see an echo of the myth. The purpose of the present treatise is to carry out an in-depth study of these verses to explore their true meaning. We will first give a simple translation of the verses, which will be followed by explanation of some of the key words or phrases used in them. Then, the overall meaning of the verses will be discussed.
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The Common Man View of the Universe
Before the invention and use of the telescope [probably by Galileo (1564 -1642 CE)], the only means of obtaining information about the extra-terrestrial world was the naked eye. To a common person, the earth was, thus, a vast flat landmass, surrounded by water from the sides and covered from above by a huge blue dome, the sky. The moon and sun in their daily ritual of rising and setting provided proof of their existence.
With the passage of time, the night-gazers, the forerunners of the modern astronomers, came up with more positive conclusions based on their more extended and systematic observations. Around the 5th century BCE, nearly two and half thousand years ago, Pythagoras (~580-500 BCE) advanced the view that sun was stationary and the earth revolved round it.
Aristotle (384-322 BCE), however, rejected the above view and proposed the opposite, i.e., the earth was stationary and formed the centre of the universe while the sun, moon and stars were revolving around it.
The Aristotelian concept of the universe then got general acceptance, and became the foundation on which Ptolemy later developed his theory of the universe.
The Ptolemaic View of the Universe
In the second century CE, Claudius Ptolemy (85-165 CE), the celebrated mathematician and geographer, presented his treatise on astronomy. According to Ptolemy, the earth was at the centre of the universe and surrounded by eight distinct spheres. They were the skies or heavens, which enveloped the earth in layers one above the other in a manner similar to the layers in an onion. The moon, the sun, the planets and the stars were considered to be attached with these heavens, through epicycles. The first heaven or sphere had the moon positioned on it. Mercury was on the second sphere, Venus on the third, the sun on the fourth, followed by Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn on the 5th, 6th and 7th spheres. And, all the stars were thought to be fixed in the eighth sphere.
The heavenly bodies did not have their own motion. Their apparent movement was actually due to the movement of the spheres in which they were stationed. This view of the universe, mixed with astrological superstitions, profoundly influenced the human mind and has been the centre of common world-view for about two thousand years.
The Muslim astronomers of the Middle Ages referred to the Ptolemaic work as “Al Majesty”. Although a number of Muslim astronomers indicated its weaknesses and proposed alternative view, the overall atmosphere remained dominated by it for centuries to come.
How far this view has dominated our thinking can be amply illustrated with a couplet of Mirza Ghalib (1789-1896 CE), one of the most influential Urdu poets:
The seven heavens are in motion, day and night,
Something will surely take place- why worry! 1
The unfortunate effect of this subjugation to the Ptolemaic view was that the traditional Muslim mind has continually shown a propensity to interpret the Qur’anic view of the universe in the light of the Ptolemaic theory.
The Aristotelian and Ptolemaic view of the universe has equally affected the western mind which also continued to be dominated by it until Copernicus (1437-1543 CE) finally replaced it with the heliocentric theory. Stephen Hawking observes:
“It (Ptolemy’s model) was adopted by the Christian church as the picture of the universe that was in accordance with Scripture, for it had the great advantage that it left lots of room outside the sphere of fixed stars for heaven and hell.”2
The Muslim Astronomers and the Ptolemaic Universe
During the Middle Ages when the Muslim men of sciences came on the scene, astronomy was their forte. Their painstaking research and investigation resulted in accumulation of vast information about the stellar systems. Long before Copernicus put his sun-centred theory of the universe, the Muslim astronomers had started challenging the Ptolemy’s earth-centred concept. For example, al- Biruni (973-1050 CE), in his writings, mentioned scholarship of his time who had subscribed to the view that the earth revolved and was not stationary. Abu Sa’id Ahmad Mohammad Abdul Jalil al-Sijzi, a contemporary of Al- Biruni, believed in the spinning earth, and developed an astrolabe based on the principle of earth’s motion and the heliocentric view. Al-Biruni, referring to this in his book al-Isti‘ab, writes:
"I have seen the astrolabe called 'Zuraqi' invented by Abu Sa'id Sijzi. I liked it very much and praised him a great deal, as it is based on the idea entertained by some to the effect that the motion we see is due to the Earth's movement and not to that of the sky.”3
The Qur’an and the Ptolemaic Universe
The Holy Qur’an was revealed much after the time of Aristotle (4th century BCE) and Ptolemy (2nd Century CE), and has many statements about the phenomena of the universe, but it is absolutely free from all erroneous theories existing at that time. For example, according to the Ptolemaic view, the planets and stars have no motion of their own; they are stationary and are attached to the heavens that revolved around the earth taking with them the celestial bodies. Contrary to this the Holy Qur’an explicitly states that the sun, moon, stars and the entire planetary system are in a constant state of motion of their own. For example,
“And it is He who has created the night and the day, the moon and the sun; all of them floating through space.”4 (Q 21:33)
THE QUR’AN, METEORS AND DIVINATION
A scientific study of the cause and the nature of meteors or “shooting stars” (a misnomer, actually they are not stars at all), shows that they have nothing to do with divination. However, there are old myths that regard the meteors as missiles that the angels throw on the evil spirits, or jinns, when the latter try to pry into the heaven to steal away the knowledge about the future events and the fortune of the people.
In the ancient Arabia, just like the most of the world at that time, there were oracles and fortune-tellers who practiced astrology and other occult sciences. They claimed that they had jinns or evil spirits in their control whom they would send to the heaven to eavesdrop on the angels’ conversation about people’s fortune or the future happenings. When these evil spirits would go upward for the purpose, or come back after stealing the news, the angles would hurl missiles of fire from stars at them. As a result, the evil spirits would be killed or injured badly so that they would no longer remain in their senses. According to the story, the same is happening today as well. Every time the evil spirits attempt to steal the secrets of the unknowable (ghayb), they are struck down with meteors.
The fable has also influenced our understanding of the meaning of some of the verses of the Qur’an. While explaining the meaning of 15:16-18, 37:10, 67:5 and 72:8-9, many traditionalistic exegetes extended an interpretation in which one can see an echo of the myth. The purpose of the present treatise is to carry out an in-depth study of these verses to explore their true meaning. We will first give a simple translation of the verses, which will be followed by explanation of some of the key words or phrases used in them. Then, the overall meaning of the verses will be discussed.
Surah al-Hijr (15:16-18)
Translation:
“And indeed, We have set up buruj (stars) in the heavens,
and endowed them with beauty for all to behold, and We have made them secure against every satanic force accursed so that anyone who seeks to learn (the unknowable) by stealth is pursued by a flame clear to see.”5
The Meaning of Buruj
The Arabic word buruj is plural of burj that originally means anything that is apparent, manifest or conspicuous. When, for example, a woman shows or displays her ornaments or beauty of her person or countenance etc., the Arabs say tabarrajatil maratu, the woman has displayed (her person etc). On the basis of this literal sense, the word is used to denote a fortress, palace, or main highway etc. because of their conspicuousness and ability to be seen from afar.6
In these verses, buruj denotes the stars (kawakib) as it has been indicated by such early experts of the Qur’anic sciences like Mujahid and Qatadah (quoted by Tabari).7 This is also supported by 37:6, where in a similar context the word kawakib is used which signifies the stars (perhaps, more precisely the planets which look bright from the earth). Furthermore, it is the shining stars (and/or planets), which are the cause of beauty, referred to in the verses, for beholders from the earth. Similarly, Buruj here cannot denote Zodiac signs as well because Arabs at the time of the Qur’anic revelation did not have any knowledge about them.8 Finally, the context of the verses as well as the modern astronomy do not allow us to take it to mean fortresses or palaces etc. Thus, it cannot be correct to understand that there are fortresses in the heavens or skies from where angels throw meteors at satans. The verse actually wants to teach that it is God and God alone and none else who has created the stars, and that the stars are the created objects, which have nothing to do with divinity or fortune of people.
The Meaning of Shaitaan
The word shaitaan has a number of connotations. It primarily denotes any evil or satanic force, belonging to humans, invisible beings or any other creature.9 The Qur’an too has used this term for humans indulged in evil activities at various places.10 Here it represents those shaiyateen al-Ins, the humans with satanic character, who regard the stars (including planets) as deities having power over human fate. They claim to predict the fortune of people on the basis of so-called esoteric sciences or astrological calculations and thus, misguide them, deprive them of their will power, self confidence, self respect and human dignity, and plunder their wealth.
The Meaning of Rajeem
Rajeem is from the root rajm, which means, “throwing (something) like a stone, i.e., at random”. It is often used metaphorically in the sense of “speaking conjecturally” or “making (something) the object of guesswork”.11
Grammatically, rajeem may be in the sense of murjoom (the one who is stoned or condemned) or raajim (the one who stones or condemns. According to the first meaning rajeem may here imply the condemned one or accursed one, that who is cast out from God’s grace and mercy due to his/her evil practices. While on the basis of the second usage, rajeem may denote the one who indulges in guesswork and practices occult sciences attempting to foretell people’s fortune. This is based on the Arabic proverb rajman bilghayb, to say something by mere guess, without any true knowledge.12
The Meaning of Shihaab
Literally, shihaab means a flame or a brand of fire, a flame of fire gleaming or radiating.13 The Qur’an itself has used it in this sense (27:7). Shihaab is also used for a shooting star or meteor, the trail of light that appears at night in the earth’s atmosphere and immediately vanishes away.14 In the above quoted verses, the term shihaab is qualified by an adjective mubeen and in verse 37:10 by saqib. Mubeen means bright, clear to see, something clear in itself and making other things clear.15 While, saqib means piercing - “such a bright light that its rays pierce through any object coming in their way”.16
The meteors are the physical phenomena governed by the physical laws, and caused by physical factors, and are a subject of physical sciences, there is nothing mysterious or super-natural with them. They are in no way the Qur’anic Shihaab Mubeen or Shihaab Saqib.
Surah As-Saaffaat (37:6-10)
Translation:
“Behold, We have adorned the skies nearest (to the earth) with the beauty of stars, and have made them secure against every rebellious, satanic force, (so that) they (who seek to learn the unknowable) should not be able to overhear the Host on High, but shall be repelled from all sides, cast out (from all grace), with lasting suffering in store for them (in the life to come); but if anyone tries to eavesdrop, he is pursued by a piercing flame”.17
Here, ‘the heaven nearest (to the earth)’ seems to signify the region of the cosmic space containing our solar system since the bodies on which astrological calculations are based and to whom people ascribed divinity exist, or appear to exist, in this region.
The words ‘We have adorned the skies nearest with the beauty of stars’ also contain an encouragement for mankind to observe, study and reflect on the phenomena of the universe in order to ultimately come to realize and appreciate the Power and Majesty of the Creator.
The word maarid used here originally means a piece of land situated at a height where nothing can grow. Therefore, it means ‘barren’, ‘unproductive’ and ‘far removed from God’s grace and blessing’. It applies to the one who is proud, inordinate and rebellious.18 The satanic forces are rebellious to God and, thus, are devoid of all His blessings.
Mala-il-a‘ala literally means ‘the assembly or host at high’, ‘the people of high rank’ etc. Here the term is evidently used metaphorically for the Unseen World (the Qur’anic ‘Aalam al-ghayb). The message is that it is impossible for satanic or evil forces- whether they are human or of any other kind- to gain access to the unknowable. Those who ascribe divinity to the celestial bodies and offer rituals to please them, and claim to know people’s fortune are cast out from God’s grace. After the Qur’anic light has spread, their tricks will not work, and ‘burning self-evident frustration will follow them’.19
Since it is impossible for a satanic force to have access to the Unseen (Mala-il-a‘ala), it cannot be correct to think of some satanic forces to succeed in getting any true knowledge of future by illicit means. The satanic forces may try to do that but they cannot succeed in their attempts. More significantly, when something is thought to be guarded by the “angels”, it is not possible for any evil being to steal it since by definition “ angelical protection” of something clearly means that by virtue of its God-willed nature it is protected from and inaccessible for any rebellious force. The Holy Qur’an maintains that the knowledge of the unknowable (Ghayb) rests only with God Almighty who reveals as much of it as He wills to His chosen Messengers.20
The purport of the verses of surah al-Hijr and as-Saaffaat is, thus, to vehemently dismiss any likelihood of “snatching” or “stealing” of the news of ghayb as was the claim of the kahins (oracles).
Surah al-Mulk (67:5)
Translation:
“And, indeed, We have adorned the skies nearest (to the earth) with lamps and have made them the object of futile guesses for the evil ones(from among men): and for them We have readied suffering through a blazing flame”.21
The word “rajoom” is from rajm the meaning of which has already been explained. Here it clearly stands for guesswork. The word shayaateen here denotes the evil astrologers, soothsayers and fortune-tellers who ascribe divinity to the planets and stars, and make guesses on the basis of astrological calculations, and thus misguide the people.22
An alternative meaning may be this: the stars which otherwise beautify the skies become a cause of God’s condemnation for the evil ones from among human beings who regard them as deities and misguide the people through their false claim of knowing their( i.e., the people’s) fortune on the basis of astrology.
Here again astronomical studies are encouraged and astrology is condemned and discouraged. Furthermore, these verses, as we have seen, have nothing to do with the false notion according to which angels pelt or stone the satans or jinns with the stars, or with the fire taken from them.
Surah Jinn (72:8-9)
Translation:
“And we pried into the secrets of heavens, but we found it filled with stern guards and flaming fires. Notwithstanding that we were established in positions (which we had thought well suited) to listening to (whatever secrets might be in) it: and anyone who now tries to listen will (likewise) find a flame laying in wait for him!”23
It is narrated that a group of “jinns” in course of their travels over the land had chance to hear the Holy Prophet recite the verses of the Qur’an. They were completely overcome by what they heard and submitted themselves to the message of the Qur’an, and later recapitulated their experience to their fellow beings.24 The Holy Qur’an, at the start of the surah, alludes to the event, and the above-cited verses are a part of their conversation. However, as the literary elegance of the surah shows, the Qur’an does not merely reproduce the verbatim report of the speech of the “jinns”, but relates some of the aspects of their discourse, which it deems necessary to convey its fundamental message, in its own characteristic inimitable style. Anybody trying to interpret these verses must keep in mind it is the Word of God and not of the persons or beings described as “jinns”.
The Meaning of “Jinn”
Literally, the Arabic word “jinn” means something that is hidden or concealed from the senses.25 The words formed from this root have a connotation of being hidden, covered, veiled or concealed, etc. For example, the embryo is called “janeen” since it is hidden in the mother’s womb. In the present context, ‘jinn’ can have any of the two possible meanings: The word jinn here may represent a creature, distinct from human beings, invisible to human senses. It is indeed possible that such a creature does actually exist. Obviously, we cannot deny the existence of a creature only on the ground that we cannot observe it. Second possibility is that here jinn stands for a group of people belonging to humans. Mohammad Asad writes:
“…this expression may possibly signify “hitherto unseen beings”, namely strangers who had never before been seen by the people among and to whom the Qur’an was then being revealed”.26
Abdullah Yusuf Ali writes:
“We may take these to be spirits ordinarily unseen, or people who were strangers in Arabia, but had in their own private way learned and believed in the Gospel of Islam”.27
Hence, “Jinn” here may signify the invisible creature, or the human beings who were strangers there and not known by the people.
It is popularly believed that in the Qur’an, the word “jinn” has always been used only in one meaning and that is “the invisible creature distinct from humans”. However, a careful and in-depth study reveals that it is by all means possible that at various places it has been used in more than one connotation.28
The Meaning of “Lamasna”
The Arabic world ‘lamas’ originally means “to feel or perceive an object by touching it”; but, it is also used to mean, “to search”, “to quest” etc. For example, Raghib Isfahani has quoted a poet who says: “almisuhu falaa ajiduhu”, I search him but do not find him.29 So here lamas nas samaa will mean, “we searched to find out the secrets of the heaven” (the Unseen World). We know that the “spiritual mysteries”, or the secrets of the “unknowable” do not belong to the physical universe; neither are they a part of the distant galaxies, nor the earth’s atmosphere where meteors are seen, and nor are they related to the mass of clouds. Therefore, samaa (heaven) here signifies ‘aalam al-ghayb (Unseen World) and not the Ptolemaic spheres, which simply do not exist. Therefore, the meaning will be this: “we have striven to learn the news or secrets of the Unknowable but have not found it possible for us to do that”. The “stern guards” are the pious learned scholars of the true knowledge -“vigilant guardians of the Right”30, while shihaab represents the Qur’anic teachings which reject and condemn any claim to know events of the future through astrological calculations.
Positions to Listening
The meaning of the first part of the verse 72:9 will be: “We used to sit in the places meant for listening the news of the heaven31 (the Unseen World)”. The “positions to listening” are the “observatories to listen”32 of astrologers. Now, if by “jinn” here are meant the human strangers, which most probably they were, then ‘places meant for listening’ will mean the seats of astrologers and soothsayers. But, if it signifies the ethereal beings as is traditionally understood, then it may be presumed that these beings may also have some system of soothsaying and astrology through which they would attempt to know the fortune of the people and the future course of events.
In either case, the theme of the verses is that after the light of the Qur’anic revelation and true knowledge has spread, all claims of divination or fortune-telling will be refuted by the Qur’anic teachings. In other words, the Qur’an here, in a metaphorical manner, rejects all claims of divination whatsoever. Furthermore, it has also been declared that such assertions will never be able to sustain in the face of the Qur’anic injunctions. Abdullah Yusuf Ali writes:
“It means that whatever excuse there may have been before, for people to try to seek out the hidden truths of the Unseen World through jinns, there was none now, as the perspicuous Qur’an had restored the Message of Unity and cleared religion of all the cobwebs, mysteries, and falsehoods with which priestcraft and pious fraud had overlaid it. The result is that such seekers after false hidden knowledge will find themselves confronted now by the flaming fire, which, like the shafts of meteoric light, will lie in wait for and nip such priestcraft and black magic in the bud.”33
As it is clear from the explanation given above, the verses do not allow us to read into them the ancient mythologies. The difficulty arises when people ignore the Qur’anic symbolism and imagery and try to explain every verse of the Holy Book too much literally. Sometimes, they also fail to differentiate between the events related to the physical world and those belonging to the metaphysical world, the Qur’anic ‘Aalam al-Ghayb. For instance, “the angels’ conversation” is not an event of the physical world. The physical heavens as conceived by Ptolemy and others have no reality. The earth itself is in the cosmic space being part of the solar system, which in turn revolves around the centre of the Milky Way, a huge galaxy of about two hundred billion stars. There are billions of such galaxies in the physical universe. Therefore, by overlooking the Qur’anic sublime linguistic beauty and confusing the metaphysical with the physical, a commentator may arrive at conclusions inconsistent with not only the scientific realities but also the Qur’anic worldview.
In contrast to the traditionalistic conjectures, the erudite Qur’anic scholars have seen in the verses a marvelous, awe-inspiring symbolism so unique to the inimitable language of the Holy Book. Alternatively, they have understood the verses as having a reference to the events that occur in the ‘Aalam al-Ghayb, the Metaphysical World, or the World Unseen/Unknowable.
Abu al-Kalam Azad, an eminent Qur’anic scholar of the Subcontinent when commenting on 15:18, writes:
“Shihaab means flame. Since it is also applied to a meteor, the commentators thought that here it is used in that sense. But there is no such detail in the Qur’an on the basis of which this can be ascertained. There is only the word shihaab here that means flame. As for the reality of this matter is concerned, this is one of the matters of the World of Unknowable (‘aalam al-ghayb) which we cannot know with our means of knowledge and perception”.34
Abdul Majid Daryabadi, another noted scholar of the Subcontinent, when commenting on 15:18, extended a similar view:
“People generally understood (the Qur’anic) shihaab mubeen or shihaab saqib to mean the shooting stars…while the fact is the World (aalam) which the Holy Qur’an is talking about here is simply out of the reach of our senses. Neither can we see satans (evil spirits) ascending the heavens nor can we see them being chased and hurled by angels. All these things are out of the ken of our eyes and are part of the unknowable (ghayb)…It is mere ignorance to regard the shooting stars as the Qur’anic shihaab. The Qur’anic shihaab are related to angels and satans, and thus belong to the world unknowable”.35
Muhammad Hussain Tabatabai, a distinguished Iranian commentator of the Qur’an, while interpreting 37:10, gives a more convincing explanation of the verses.
“It has been proved in the modern times that such notions (of equating the Qur’anic shihaabs with shooting stars) are baseless. Neither are there such heavens (as were previously conceived), nor are there such heavenly gates etc. What we possibly can say here is that in the Qur’an such descriptions are like similes or parables in which extra-sensory realities have been described in sensual terms”.36
Tantawi Jauhri has given almost similar view. According to him, it is possible that description in these verses is a kinayah (metaphor) in which the negation of knowing a reality through senses actually signifies the negation of knowing it through intellect; and, kinayah is one of the most beautiful kinds of eloquence.37
At the time of the Qur’anic revelation, the human society was sinking deep in the abyss of ignorance and superstitions, and the heavenly bodies, stars, sun, moon and planets were widely regarded as deities that have control on the fortune of people. They would not only worship them but also perform different rituals to seek their pleasure. Kahanat (practice of divination) was rampant, and oracles and fortune-tellers commanded great reverence and prestige in the society. People used to consult them for guidance in day-to-day matters of their lives. The kahins, or fortune-tellers, also claimed that they had jinn or spirits in their control that brought news from heavens and, thus, informed them on people’s fate and future events. The practice of divination or kahanat was a great means of wealth acquisition.38
Many opponents of the Holy Prophet (sal lallahu alaihi wa sallam) also equated his claim of receiving God’s revelation with kahanat and, out of ignorance or simply by way of opposition, accused him of having control over some jinn who brought the Qur’an to him. Under such circumstances, it was absolutely necessary to expel the confusion being created between kahanat and risalat (prophethood), so that the people could distinguish clearly between the two and, therefore, must not feel any difficulty in accepting the message of God.
Therefore, the Qur’an categorically rejected and condemned all claims of fortune telling, soothsaying and sorcery in a figurative and symbolic language- the style so unique to the Qur’an. According to the Qur’an no satanic force can have access to the secrets of the Unknowable (World of Ghayb) and the future events through astrological calculations or other occult sciences.
God has kept the future course of events secured from any attempt to knowing them by created beings. The so-called fortune-tellers have no real knowledge; they only indulge in mere guess-game and, thus, try to mislead and befool the people by their cunning tricks. The phrase, “to hear by stealth” metaphorically means to try to learn the unknowable by illicit means39 such as witchcraft, black magic, astrology or other occult sciences.
Conclusion
The Holy Qur’an does not mention the kind of heavens that we find in the Ptolemaic view of the universe. The earth is not situated in the centre of the universe nor is it stationary, and nor is there any veracity to the claim that the heavens as envisaged in Ptolemaic view of the universe do actually exist. The idea of the heavens that Aristotle and Ptolemy presupposed and which later made inroads into our traditional world-view has no support in the Holy Qur’an.
The shihaab saqib and shihaab mubeen denote metaphorically the bright piercing light of the knowledge, awareness and enlightenment that the Qur’an wants to propagate, and that will eventually burn and destroy all claims of divination and fortune telling through illicit means. This is, thus, the “flame” of divine revelation that is meant to diffuse and pierce (saqib) the darkness of ignorance, and spread the light of knowledge and wisdom (mubeen).
The ultimate purpose was, and still is, to get the humankind free from all types of exploitation, superstitions, and mythologies. The stars and other heavenly bodies are God’s creation; they have nothing to do with divinity or divination. The Holy Qur’an is a masterpiece of literature and an inimitable word of God. When rendering its meaning, one must keep in mind its miraculous style full of literary splendor.
Notes and References
1. Asadullah Khan Ghalib, Dewan-e-Ghalib, translation is mine; the actual Urdu verse reads: Rat din gardish mein hain sat asman, Ho rahe ga kuchh na kuchh ghabrain kia.
2. Stephen W. Hawking, A Brief History of Time: From the Big Bang to Black Holes. (New York: Bantam Books, 1988), p. 4.
3. Al-Biruni, al-Ist‘ab, translated by S.H. Barani in “Al-Biruni’s Scientific Acheivements”, Indo-Iranica, Vol. V, No. 4 (1952).
4. The Qur’an, translation by Muhammad Asad, The Message of The Qur’an, (Dar al-Andalus: Gibraltar: 1980), p. 492.
5. This is how Abul Kalam Azad and Muhammad Asad, among others, understood the meaning of these verses. See the former’s Tarjuman-ul-Qur’an, Vol. II, (Shaikh Ghulam Ali & Sons Ltd., Lahore: nd), pp.333-4, and the latter’s The Message of the Qur’an, p. 384.
6. See, for example, Lane, Edward William, An Arabic-English lexicon, (Beirut, Lebanon: Librairie du Liban: 1980), p.180.
7. Abi Ja’far Muhammad Bin Jarir Al-Tabari, Jami’-ul-Bayan, Part XIV, (Dar Ibn Hazm: Beirut: 2002), p.20.
8. See Abul Kalam Azad who wrote a comprehensive note on the meaning of buruj. See Op Cit. Pir Muhammad Karam Shah Al-Azhari also derived a similar conclusion; see his Zia-ul-Qur’an, Vol. II, (Zia-ul-Qur’an Publications: Lahore: 1402 AH), pp. 533-4. Consultation to Lane, p. 180, will also be useful.
9. Raghib Isfahani, Mufridat-e-Qur’an, Urdu Translation by Muhammad Abduhu Ferozpuri, (Shaikh Shams-ul-Haq: Lahore: 1987), p.539 .
10. See, for example, 2:14.
11. Muhammad Asad (on the authority of Jawhari, Raghib, Lisan al-Arab, Qamus, Taj al-Urus etc.), note on 67:6, p. 880.
12. See Al-Fakhr al-Razi, Al-Tafsir al-Kabir, Part XIX, (Dar al-Ihya al-Tirath al-‘Arabi: Beirut: 1995), p.129, Raghib, p385.
13. See, for example, Lane, p. 1608
14. Ibid.
15. Muhammad Asad, p. 336.
16. Raghib, p. 154, Lane, p. 342.
17. Based on Muhammad Asad, pp.682-3.
18. Lane, p. 2706, Raghib, p.993.
19. Muhammad Asad, note on 15:18, p.384.
20. Q 72:26,27.
21. Based on Muhammad Asad, p. 879.
22. See Al-Fakhr al-Razi, Part XXX, p. 583, and Nasir al-Din Al-Baydhawi, Anwar al-Tanzil wa Asrar al-Tawil, (Dar al-Faras Lin-Nashr wa al-Tawzi’: nd), p.749.
23. See Abdullah Yusuf Ali, The Holy Qur’an, (Da’wah Academy, International Islamic University: Islamabad: 2004), p.1744, and Muhammad Asad, p. 900.
24. See, for example, Ibn Kathir, Tafsir Ibn-e-Kathir, Urdu Translation by Maulana Muhammad Junagarhi, Vol.V, (Maktaba-e-Quddusia: Lahore: nd), pp. 437-8.
25. Raghib, p.193, Lane, pp. 462-3.
26. Muhammad Asad, note on 72:1, p.899.
27. Abdullah Yusuf Ali, note 5728, p.1743.
28. See Muhammad Asad, Appendix III., p. 994, and Mohammad Marmaduke Pickthall, The Glorious Qur’an, Introduction to Surah al-Jinn, (Islamic Book Trust: Kuala Lumpur: 2001), p. 853.
29. Raghib, p. 968.
30. Abdullah Yusuf Ali, note 5733, p.1744.
31. See, for example, Maulana Ashraf Ali Thanwi, Bayan-ul-Qur’an, (Taj Company: Lahore: nd), p.1101.
32. Ahmed Ali, Al-Qur’an- A Contemporary Translation, (Akrash Publishing: Karachi: 1995), p. 506
33. Abdullah Yusuf Ali, note 5734, p.1744.
34. Abul Kalam Azad, note on 15:18, p.334. Translation is mine.
35. Abdul Majid Daryabadi, Tafsir-e-Majidi, Vol.II, (Majlis Nashriat-e-Qur’an: Karachi: 1999), p. 733. Translation is mine.
36. Cf. Nasir Makarim Shirazi, Tafsir-e-Namoona, Vol. XI, (Misba-ul-Qur’an Trust: Lahore: 1413 AH), p. 59. Translation is mine.
37. Al-Shaikh Tantawi Jauhri, Al-Jawahir Fi Tafsir al-Quran al-Karim, (Dar al-Fikr, Beirut: nd) p. 10.
38. Pir Muhammad Karam Shah Al-Azhari, Vol. IV, p. 198.
39. Muhammad Asad, p. 384.
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